Students perform badly in examinations for many reasons: lack of knowledge, inadequate grasp of concepts, badly structured essays, poor revision strategies, poor time management in the exam, misreading the question and bad presentation. But many clearly do not appreciate the meaning of “command words” - those key words in a question that tell the student the nature of the answer required and indicate the skills being tested.

The words also give the examiner clear guidelines to judge whether a candidate has answered the question satisfactorily. In other words, command words are an important assessment tool. As well as essays, candidates need to pay attention to command words in short-answer questions, case studies and data-stimulus questions. It is, therefore, essential that students fully understand the meaning of command words and are able to distinguish between them.

Say what you see

These are some of the more important command words used in degree-level examinations. Where there is more than one word, they are virtually synonymous:

Analyse or critically analyse assesses application and analysis skills. Candidates are asked to demonstrate an understanding of an argument or hypothesis by critically examining its constituent parts and then their relationship. When they are followed by “the extent to which”, candidates are being asked to make a judgment.

Questions starting with assess or critically assess test reasoning skills. Students need to discuss the value of, for example, a theory or argument and make an informed judgment about how sound or effective it is and assess its strengths and limitations.

Compare, contrast or distinguish appraise the ability to evaluate. In all cases candidates should point out any important similarities and differences between two or more things, ideas, policies or techniques. A mere description of each is insufficient. Questions asking candidates to distinguish between again assess evaluative skills. Answers must demonstrate a clear understanding of the key differences between two topic areas. Clarification is therefore called for.

Phrases such as discuss, consider or explore embodied in questions are likewise meant to test evaluative skills. Candidates are usually asked to study a statement, which may be contentious, and make reasoned judgments both for and against, where appropriate.

With the self-descriptive evaluate, exam candidates are asked to weigh evidence and make an informed judgment regarding the importance, value or significance of an argument, theory or method.

Reconcile tests knowledge and critical comprehension skills. Candidates are asked to show how two or more apparently conflicting theories or sets of data are compatible.

Tasks where students criticise, appraise or examine measure powers of comprehension. They must discuss and judge the relative merits and drawbacks of a theory, viewpoint, method or policy, usually a contentious one. “Criticise” does not mean be hostile to the matter under consideration.

Candidates’ knowledge and critical understanding skills are being tested when they are asked to define or identify. They need to explain precisely what is meant by a given term or statement.

Enumerate, itemise, list or specify also gauge knowledge and critical understanding skills. Candidates are asked to identify and write out the key parts of a transaction, process or theory.

Terms such as explain, justify or resolve are other ways to test knowledge and critical understanding. Candidates need to explain reasons for a particular action, or to clarify a complex or paradoxical set of data.

Describe assesses the lower-order skill of knowledge. Candidates need to provide a neutral account and present evidence of their knowledge of a topic, using diagrams where appropriate.

With outline, candidates are required to briefly describe and summarise the key successive stages in a process or main points in an argument. This too gauges knowledge and critical understanding skills.

Candidates are required to give a brief answer when asked to state, with little or no explanation. This assesses their familiarity with the subject and comprehension.

Because degree-level examinations are evaluating mainly higher-order skills, the most important command words in questions are those that ask the candidate to analyse, assess, evaluate, discuss, identify, compare, or explain. These words assess the ability to select, interpret and analyse information. They also require candidates to make reasoned judgments and present a conclusion.

Barry Clayton is chief examiner of the CIPS foundation stage economics paper, as well as for its new human resources management module, which starts next month

Checklist

A question of basics

• “Command” words reveal the nature of the answer required and also give an indication of the skills being tested.

• As well as essays, they are also very important in answering short-answer questions, case studies and data-stimulus questions.

• The most important command words are analyse, assess, evaluate, discuss, identify, compare, or explain.They assess the candidate’s ability to select, interpret and analyse information.